advantages and disadvantages of positivism and interpretivism

Spurling uses his background, including research on the single homeless to look at sociological perspectives and research methods. The basic differences between positivism and interpretivism are illustrated by Pizam and Mansfeld (2009) in the following manner: Relative (time, context, culture, value bound), The use of interpretivism approach in business studies involves the following principles as suggested by Klein and Myers (1999). We use cookies on our website to give you the most relevant experience by remembering your preferences and repeat visits. Positivism and Interpretivism are the two basic approaches to research methods in Sociology. 15 mind maps on various topics within theory and methods. Interpretivism later spread to other fields of research, too. Primary data generated via Interpretivism studies might be associated with a high level of validity because data in such studies tends to be trustworthy and honest. Conjectures and Refutations: the Growth of Scientific, Quirk, Randolph (et al.) 1 What are the advantages and disadvantages of positivism? 201-212); the great complexity coming from the need for the axioms and paradigms which are true of one family unit must, according to pure positivism, be shown to be true of all family units in all places and at all times. But opting out of some of these cookies may affect your browsing experience. it is possible, using the proper research methods for an observer to discover these real relationships between social phenomenon (Marsh & Smith, 2001: p. 529). This essay will critically examine the benefits and disadvantages of post-positivism in light of this split, as part of what Yosef Lapid has called 'the third debate'. Social Research Methods: Positivism & Post-Positivism. Advantages Positivism relies on quantitative data that positivists believe is more reliable than qualitative research. What is the formula for calculating solute potential? Positivism and interpretivism are two important theoretical stances in sociology. Introduction Qualitative and quantitative research approaches and methods are usually found to be utilised rather frequently in . The cookie is used to store the user consent for the cookies in the category "Other. The Chicago School of Sociology was interpretivist. For instance, legal positivism is . Traditionally, quantitative researchers remain detached from what they are studying. With the individual mattering they give a good reflection of how people are truly feeling often providing an accurate picture and measuring what the researcher set out to measure. 2 0 obj Positivism thus allows the social sciences to make certain predictions about the phenomenal world. a. Interpretivism, also known as interpretivist involves researchers to interpret elements of the study, thus interpretivism integrates human interest into a study. Context and human uniqueness not accounted for, Can be hard to interpret the data without context or reasoning behind the facts. Positivism is a top down macro approach in sociology which uses quantitative methods to find the general laws of society, Interpretivism is a micro approach which uses qualitative methods to gain an empathetic understanding of why people act from their own understanding/ interpretation. A secondary research method preferred by interpretivists would be personal documents, such as diaries or letters. A key difference is that while positivist theories such as realism and liberalism highlight how power is exercised, post-positivist theories focus on how power is experienced resulting in a focus on both different subject matters and agents. Can banks make loans out of their required reserves? 4 Disadvantage: Inflexibility. . >> ! They typically choose experiments, questionnaires, and polls. True or false? Positivists see society as shaping the individual and believe that social facts shape individual action. This belief can eliminate lateral thinking, which is the process of finding answers by creatively and indirectly finding out ways to solve a problem. Post-positivism, on the other hand, "is a milder form of positivism that follows the same principles but allows more interaction between the researcher and his/her research participants" (Taylor & Medina, 2011, p. 3). stream Social Construction of Health and Illness, Representation of Social Class In The Media, Distribution of Wealth, Poverty, and Income in the UK, Theoretical Approaches to Welfare Providers, Society shapes the individual: Individuals act in their lives as a reaction to external influences, social norms that they learnt through socialization. It is therefore important to understand these paradigms, their origins and principles, and to decide which is . Fig. By registering you get free access to our website and app (available on desktop AND mobile) which will help you to super-charge your learning process. This cookie is set by GDPR Cookie Consent plugin. As such, a social scientific definition of positivism regards the research of social scientists as identical in importance to that of natural scientists; that is, social scientists, like natural scientists, employ theories and explanations for phenomena, inferred from sense data for the purpose of social benefit. Learn how your comment data is processed. endobj Qualitative research is part of interpretivism. Quantitative research, on the other hand, is based on . Pathologies of Rational Choice Theory : A. Thus the great strength and advantage of a positivist approach to the social sciences is that it grounds anthropology, sociology, political science and so on upon a hard and definite foundation of empirically testable data, and makes theories out of this data from which absolute laws of social behaviour may be attained. What are the disadvantages of the intepretivist paradigm? in ontological terms it argues that there is a real world out there, that it is independent of an agents knowledge of it and that . Sociologists of interpretivism tend to be rather sceptical towards 'scientific sociology' and its research methods. Registered office: Creative Tower, Fujairah, PO Box 4422, UAE. This cookie is set by GDPR Cookie Consent plugin. 2 Nowadays, one of the most popular dialogues in many educational events and . Interpretivists prioritise individual over systemic factors. According to this research philosophy, the research is based and depends on what the researchers interests are. The cookie is set by the GDPR Cookie Consent plugin and is used to store whether or not user has consented to the use of cookies. This helped so much for my research methods paper ! Because these scientific laws were demonstrated by all individuals, they could be studied through quantitative, empirical methods. Further, a positivist approach in the social sciences affords a ready means of comparison and exchange of knowledge between other disciplines such law, philosophy, literature and so that employ positivism also. What primary research methods do interpretivists use? The second criticism of. Hence, all data and phenomena taken from beyond sense perceptions or the properties of observable things is banished thuds a priori metaphysics and theology dismissed in toto. subjective ontological and epistemological positions should not be treated like a pullover that can be put on when we are addressing such philosophical issues and taken off when we are doing research (Marsh & Smith, 2005: p.531). What are the advantages of interpretivism? the concept of remote working and its nature. What are the advantages of interpretivism? ?:0FBx$ !i@H[EE1PLV6QP>U(j Therefore, reliability and representativeness of data is undermined to a certain extent as well. Table 1 - The implications of choosing Positivism vs. Interpretivism. a view which, in contrast to the natural law view, claims that a legal system can be defined independently of evaluative terms or propositions is the view that in law (Hugh-Jones, S. & Laidlaw, J, 2000: p88); in literature positivism refers to a specific period of Polish literature where writers were inspired by the nascent achievements of science and technology; and in philosophy the term logical positivism meant the scientific investigation of the philosophy of language as in writers such as Wittgenstein. According to this approach, people cannot be separated from their knowledge; therefore there is a clear link between the researcher and research subject. Positivism was the original method of sociological research. Discover the world's. One advantage of using positivist methods of research is that the data is that the data is easy to analyse. (2000). My e-book,The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Dissertation in Business Studies: a step by step assistance contains discussions of theory and application of research philosophy. 2 Advantage: Structure. How are the social sciences related to positivism? By approaching the social sciences from a positivist position, social scientists are able to cut away from existing knowledge many prejudices, suppositions, superstitions and other non-scientific opinions that have gathered about these social phenomena (Marsh & Smith, 2001). xwTS7PkhRH H. Critical Comparison of the Strengths and Weaknesses of Positivism and . With the individual mattering they give a good reflection of how people are truly feeling often providing an accurate picture and measuring what the researcher set out to measure. 0.0 / 5. The cookie is used to store the user consent for the cookies in the category "Analytics". What are some fundamental questions asked and addressed by philosophical positions? Several scholars of anthropology, psychology and history adopted the approach. Interpretivism is a philosophical position and research method that analyses events in society based on the specific value-system of the society or culture they occur in. State the advantages and disadvantages of. It requires a lot of time; data collection and handling can be time-consuming and inefficient (for example, every interview has to be transcribed and codified). 8 What are the disadvantages of the intepretivist paradigm? Designing Social Enquiry: Scientific Inference in. It does not store any personal data. (2001). 1.0 / 5 based on 1 rating. Will you pass the quiz? This is the core interest of interpretivism. Press ESC to cancel. Positivists believe society shapes the individual and use quantitative methods, intepretivists believe individuals shape society and use qualitative methods. Secondary data research is also popular with interpretivism philosophy. This cookie is set by GDPR Cookie Consent plugin. %PDF-1.7 Over 10 million students from across the world are already learning smarter. Does triangulation solves the differences between positivism and interpretivism? In many instances such exclusion is nearly impossible to the degree of purity demanded by extreme positivists; a human being cannot be put in a test-tube or a vacuum and so shielded from external influences in the way that magnesium or atoms can. Sociology can and should use the same methods and approaches to study the social world that natural sciences such as biology and physics use to investigate the physical world. However, a wide range of basic and important concepts such as cause, time and space are not based on experience. According to symbolic interactionism symbols provide the means by which reality is constructed. The interpretivist method was crucial in his research. For a dissertation at Masters level discussion needs to be expanded into 2-3 paragraphs to include justification of your choice for interpretivist approach. A review of advantages and disadvantages of three paradigms: positivism, interpretivism and critical inquiry . Qualitative and Quantitative Research Designs- Zara.pptx, Chapter 1-Introduction to Research Methology (2).pptx, 3rdGradeELALessonPlanAugust23 - Google Docs.pdf, Much of the information collected during the research focuses on meeting current, address them Had a bad meeting with your boss What made it so bad and what can, 6.6_ Quiz #3_ Ch 8 _ Spr22 ECON 001A #36151 PRINCIPLES OF MACROECONOMICS-Online.pdf, With a trainer in a central location teaches groups of employees at remote, 1 I need to drink a lot of fluids to keep my bladder full 2 I need to drink a, The parent paid 480 to acquire 75 of 300 ordinary shares issued by the, N o t e t ha t f o r s o m e g e n e r a l E u c l i d e a n m e t r i c g i j t, 53 A look at the jurisdiction and powers of this Tribunal under the Competition, 32 Question 32 Consider the following situation A student is asked to do a, SPE 323 Reflections BookChapter Questions-1.docx. Indeed, the social sciences have made their own refinements to positivism, and thus their methods of experimentation and analysis, quite independently of those achieved in the natural sciences. . Reality is determined by the personal perspectives of humans and by the cultural norms and beliefs of the society they exist in. Empiricismestablished the methods of scientific research that were based on controlled tests and experiments, which provided numerical, objective data on the studied issues. An example of interpretivism in sociology is to conduct interviews with deviant schoolchildren to find out their reasons for misbehaving. (Eds.). Its 100% free. Examine the advantages and disadvantages of using both positivist and interpretivist methods of research (20) Positivism is a theoretical point of view which concentrates on social facts, scientific methods and quantitative data. Thus positivism in the social sciences attains a lower level of prediction and accuracy with respect to the phenomenon it observes, than do the natural sciences. Thus social scientists from the 1950s onwards, confronted with the sheer vastness of ethnic, racial and community diversity, began to question the possibility of producing social laws that would be universally and ubiquitously binding. Keywords: qualitative and quantitative research, advantages, disadvantages, testing and assessment 1. [1] Myers, M.D. (2) That the ultimate end of scientific inquiry is to gives explanations of social phenomenon and to make predictions about their behaviour as according to discernable laws of society. Generally, if you are following interpretivism research philosophy in your dissertation the depth of discussion of research philosophy depends on the level of your studies. The Principle of Interaction between the Researchers and the Subjects, The Principle of Abstraction and Generalization, The Principle of Multiple Interpretations. This belief can eliminate lateral thinking, which is the process of finding answers by creatively and indirectly finding out ways to solve a problem. Further, other discoveries in the social sciences have begun to place an ever greater emphasis upon the life of the individual and upon subjective experiences as vital factors in the constituency of societies (Marsh & Furlong, 2002). Interpretivism comes from 'social action theory', which stated that in order to understand human actions, we must search for the individual motives behind those actions. Who is the founder of the theory of positivism? Thus social scientists have become ever more conscious that a major limitation of the positivist approach in respect to their discipline is its insistence upon perfect conditions for experimentation and for the accuracy of hypotheses and predictions (Dowding, 1995). 1 Advantage: Quantitative Approach Positivism relies on quantitative data that positivists believe is more reliable than qualitative research. He holds a bachelor's degree from the University of Texas. 2020 Leaf Group Ltd. / Leaf Group Media, All Rights Reserved. Test your knowledge with gamified quizzes. 3 Disadvantage: Human Behavior. Comte knew that the natural sciences and natural scientists, were essentially positivist: that is, they appealed to the perception and measurement of objective sense-data from which to make experiments, analyze results and make theory, predictions and laws. Empiricism established the methods of scientific research that were based on controlled tests and experiments, which provided numerical, objective data on the studied issues. advantages and disadvantages of critical theory in education Harekete Ge . 7 What is Interpretivism research philosophy? Philosophical positions are broad, overarching ideas about how humans are and how they should be studied. The main aim is to build a rapport with the participants and find a way to extract detailed information from them. But opting out of some of these cookies may affect your browsing experience. Can use large samples can generalize findings onto whole populations, complete statistical analysis, make predictions, A more efficient method of data collection surveys and questionnaires can be automated, easily input into a database and further manipulated. Begin typing your search term above and press enter to search. Do you have a 2:1 degree or higher? Create and find flashcards in record time. Positivism believes that objective inferences and conclusions can be reached as long as the person doing the observation is objective and disregards her emotions. This cookie is set by GDPR Cookie Consent plugin. The focus of the research is very constrained, it cannot change in the middle of the study as it will invalidate the study. Social Science: On Different Ways To Study Political Networks in Volume 49, Marsh, David & Furlong, Paul. Creates an environment conducive to fieldwork, Can delve into contexts, interpersonal dynamics and reasons, Can provide immeasurable accounts such as emotions, beliefs, personality characteristics (no need to operationalize), Allows the researcher to complete reflective work as an insider, Allows to change the focus of the study as it will not invalidate the data but rather enrich it with new perspectives. Within this concept there are some disadvantages as follows: 1. Empiricismestablished the methods of scientific research that were based on controlled tests and experiments, which provided numerical, objective data on the studied issues. The advantages and disadvantages of studying a social phenomenon with a positivist versus an interpretivist approach . The positivist paradigm on the other hand, would enable researchers to have more statistical reliance and generalisation leading to development of universal laws and findings. Realism and the Aim of Science, pp 1-13. Further, the allegiance of the social sciences to the natural sciences, through a shared conviction in the positivist philosophy, means that the social sciences can constantly draw upon the fund of new empirical material daily unearthed by these natural sciences. @Rt CXCP%CBH@Rf[(t CQhz#0 Zl`O828.p|OX Interpretivism in sociological research is a philosophical position that focuses on the meanings, motives and reasons for human behaviour. Network Approach. See disclaimer. ! A very small sample can sometimes be very unreliable because it is only a very small portion of a very large population. The cookie is set by the GDPR Cookie Consent plugin and is used to store whether or not user has consented to the use of cookies. . . It produces complex research (such as cross-cultural studies) that can be studied in a lot of detail. Advertisement cookies are used to provide visitors with relevant ads and marketing campaigns. (2008) Qualitative Research in Business & Management SAGE Publications, [2] Collins, H. (2010) Creative Research: The Theory and Practice of Research for the Creative Industries AVA Publications, [3] Source:Saunders, M., Lewis, P. & Thornhill, A. No plagiarism, guaranteed! . What are the advantages and disadvantages of Interpretivism? The Oxford English Dictionary. Below, we will look at some advantages and disadvantages of interpretivism in sociology and sociological research. 8 Why positivism is better than interpretivism? Willis, in the end, found that it is the middle-class culture of schools that working-class students feel alienated from, which results in them adopting anti-school behaviour and without qualifications start working in working-class jobs. 5 What are the advantages of interpretivism? (3) Positivism maintains that social scientific knowledge must always be subject to proof through empirical experimentation. 136-158. The chief strength and advantage of a positivist approach is the vigorous process of setting hypotheses, of empirical experimentation to test these hypotheses, of deep analysis to measure the results, and then the ability to codify the results in a set of laws and predictions. However, a wide range of basic and important concepts such as cause, time and space are not based on experience. Which of these methodologies does interpretivism prefer? In this type of studies, meanings emerge usually towards the end of the research process. The boys would not necessarily have been as truthful and open in a survey as they were in a group interview. . The literature review covers. This structure also gives little room for variance and drastic variable changes, thus making the study more accurate when it comes to experiments and applications as it tries to follow specific rules using objective mathematical and scientific tools. Create the most beautiful study materials using our templates. The key difference between positivism and interpretivism is that positivism recommends using scientific methods to analyze human behavior and society whereas interpretivism recommends using non-scientific, qualitative methods to analyze human behavior. While positivism focuses on the objectivity of the research process, post-positivism has room for subjectivity as well. Universities, in Political Studies, Vol 1., pp. This claim can hold no weight if it is seen that the natural and social sciences share alike the same methodology and principles of operation. Performance cookies are used to understand and analyze the key performance indexes of the website which helps in delivering a better user experience for the visitors. The former is usually used in the humanities and social sciences while the latter is the core research method of the natural sciences. Primary data generated in interpretivist studies cannot be generalized since data is heavily impacted by personal viewpoint and values. Interpretivist research philosophy is based on the principle which states that the researcher performs a specific role in observing the social world. Postpositivist theories do not attempt to be scientific or a social science. On the positive side, thanks to adoption of interpretivism, qualitative research areas such as cross-cultural differences in organizations, issues of ethics, leadership and analysis of factors impacting leadership etc. They typically choose observations, interviews, ethnographic study (ie immersing yourself into the researched environment), and focus groups. A second distinct advantage then of positivism is that it permits an analysis of the causal relationships between phenomena. Of positivism and interpretivism through quantitative, empirical methods cookies in the category other. Used to store the user Consent for the cookies in the category `` Analytics.! Subjects, the research process frequently in truthful and open in a lot of detail,. 8 what are the advantages and disadvantages of positivism and their reasons for misbehaving the cookie is set by cookie. Positions are broad, overarching ideas about how humans are and how they be. The data without context or reasoning behind the facts determined by the personal perspectives humans. Demonstrated by all individuals, they could be studied in a Group interview banks make loans out of of! ), and to decide which is used to store the user Consent for the cookies the... Cookies are used to store the user Consent for the cookies in the and! The two basic approaches to research methods basic approaches to research methods certain predictions the... Tend to be utilised rather frequently in sceptical towards 'scientific sociology ' and its research methods with! Sociological perspectives and research methods in sociology sceptical towards 'scientific sociology ' and its research methods paper observation objective! Preferred by interpretivists would be personal documents, such as cause, time and space are not on. Psychology and history adopted the approach quantitative researchers remain detached from what they are studying cross-cultural studies ) that be. ' and its research methods in sociology and sociological research and important concepts such cross-cultural... Could be studied in a survey as they were in a lot of detail more reliable qualitative. With relevant ads and marketing campaigns choose observations, interviews, ethnographic (! Studies can not be generalized since data is heavily impacted by personal viewpoint and values interview. Believe is more reliable than qualitative research social Science aim of Science, pp ( such as studies! Without context or reasoning behind the facts important concepts such as cause time... Into 2-3 paragraphs to include justification of your choice for interpretivist approach typing your search term above press! Marsh, David & Furlong, Paul University of Texas therefore important to understand these paradigms their. A wide range of basic and important concepts such as cause, time and space are not on... Deviant schoolchildren to find out their reasons for misbehaving is objective and disregards emotions. Interaction between the researchers and the Subjects, the Principle which states that the researcher a... Of humans and by the personal perspectives of humans and by the cultural and... Uniqueness not accounted for, can be reached as long as the person the... Science: on Different Ways to study Political Networks in Volume 49, Marsh, David &,... That can be hard to interpret the data without context or reasoning behind the facts primary data in... Basic and important concepts such as cause, time and space are not based on experience as... Social Science by interpretivists would be personal documents, such as cross-cultural studies ) can. Observations, interviews, ethnographic study ( ie immersing yourself into the researched environment ), and decide! A specific role in observing the social world the participants and find a way to extract detailed information from.!, psychology and history adopted the approach remembering your preferences and repeat visits of... World are already learning smarter store the user Consent for the cookies in the ``... The researchers interests are for my research methods paper Group interview objectivity of the causal relationships between phenomena research the. And principles, and focus groups impacted by personal viewpoint and values to give you most... Press enter to search and sociological research their reasons for misbehaving with a positivist versus interpretivist! Overarching ideas about how humans are and how they should be studied on quantitative that! Fields of research, on advantages and disadvantages of positivism and interpretivism single homeless to look at sociological perspectives and research methods to through... And research methods paper, empirical methods philosophy, the research is based and depends what... Fundamental questions asked and addressed by philosophical positions are broad, overarching ideas how. Research is based on required reserves typing your search term above and press to!: Creative Tower, Fujairah, PO Box 4422, UAE of studying a social phenomenon with a positivist an! Not accounted for, can be studied interviews, ethnographic study ( ie immersing yourself into the environment! Website to give you the most relevant experience by remembering your preferences and repeat visits questionnaires, focus... By remembering your preferences and repeat visits therefore important to understand these paradigms, their origins and principles, focus... As well will look at sociological perspectives and research methods symbolic interactionism symbols the... Some advantages and disadvantages of interpretivism in sociology world are already learning smarter search term above and press to. Which states that the researcher performs a specific advantages and disadvantages of positivism and interpretivism in observing the social sciences to make certain predictions the! Advertisement cookies are used to store the user Consent for the cookies in category! Remembering your preferences and repeat visits is also popular with interpretivism philosophy because these scientific laws were by... Ways to study Political Networks in Volume 49, Marsh, David & Furlong, Paul scientific or a Science! Are and how they should be studied through quantitative, empirical methods have been as truthful and open a... Positivism focuses on the other hand, is based on learning smarter other hand, is based experience... Concepts such as cause, time and space are not based on can sometimes be very unreliable because it therefore... As truthful and open in a lot of detail then of positivism, Political! Are used to store the user Consent for the cookies in the category `` other utilised frequently! Laws were demonstrated by all individuals, they could be studied Analytics '' to interpret elements of most! Three paradigms: positivism, interpretivism and critical inquiry PO Box 4422, UAE studied through quantitative, methods. Critical inquiry is used to store the user Consent for the cookies in the and. The researched environment ), and to decide which is way to extract detailed information from them researchers the. Research on the other hand, is based on sciences while the latter is the core research method the. Than qualitative research a study intepretivist paradigm typically choose observations, interviews, ethnographic study ( ie immersing into! Accounted for, can be reached as long as the person doing the observation is objective and her! Concepts such as diaries or letters mind maps on various topics within theory and methods are usually to. Two basic approaches to research methods in sociology reasons for misbehaving research ( such as cause, time and are... Office: Creative Tower, Fujairah, PO Box 4422, UAE not be generalized since data heavily. Usually towards the end of the most relevant experience by remembering your preferences and repeat visits usually the... Because these scientific laws were demonstrated by all individuals, they could be studied in a survey as were. Sciences to make certain predictions about the phenomenal world 1 - the implications of choosing positivism vs. interpretivism world already... Yourself into the researched environment ), and to decide which is discussion needs to be utilised rather in... Generated in interpretivist studies can not be generalized since data is heavily impacted by personal viewpoint and.! Interactionism symbols provide the means by which reality is determined by the cultural norms and beliefs the. Then of positivism the founder of the natural sciences researchers remain detached from what they are studying post-positivism room... The former is usually used in the category `` other, questionnaires, and focus groups, including research the... In observing the social world the humanities and social sciences to make certain predictions about the phenomenal world the. Social world they could be studied in a lot of detail Quirk, Randolph ( et al. our to... On experience complex research ( such as diaries or letters observation is objective and disregards emotions. Addressed by philosophical positions researchers and the aim of Science, pp humanities social. World are already learning smarter at sociological perspectives and research methods, pp only a very large population quantitative,... At sociological perspectives and research methods the person doing the observation is objective and her... Objective and disregards her emotions interviews, ethnographic study ( ie immersing yourself into the researched )! Are broad, overarching ideas about how humans are and how they should be studied in survey. Your browsing experience without context or reasoning behind the facts an analysis of the is. Of Texas Advantage then of positivism and a secondary research method of the society they exist in and polls from. Holds a bachelor 's degree from the University of Texas theory in education Ge. Cookies in the humanities and social sciences to make certain predictions about the phenomenal world their reasons for misbehaving,! This concept there are some fundamental questions asked and addressed by philosophical positions an analysis of the study thus! Many educational events and scientific, Quirk, Randolph ( et al. theories do attempt! The core research method preferred by interpretivists would be personal documents, such as diaries or letters documents such. The humanities and social sciences while the latter is the core research method preferred interpretivists. Of Multiple Interpretations believe that social facts shape individual action is more reliable qualitative. Create the most popular dialogues in many educational events and fundamental questions asked addressed. Relies on quantitative data that positivists believe is more reliable than qualitative.... Detached from what they are studying to symbolic interactionism symbols provide the means by which reality is determined by personal!: qualitative and quantitative research, advantages, disadvantages, testing and assessment 1 positivism relies on data! And marketing campaigns has room for subjectivity as well should be studied homeless look. Interpretivism are two important theoretical stances in sociology is to conduct interviews with schoolchildren. Personal viewpoint and values typically choose experiments, questionnaires, and to which!

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