steepest adhesion railway

The steepest adhesion railroad grade in the USA is found at the Cass Scenic Railroad in West Virginia. It is the highest transalpine railway and one of the steepest adhesion railways in the world. Steam locomotives suffer particularly badly from adhesion issues because the traction force at the wheel rim fluctuates (especially in 2- or most 4-cylinder engines) and, on large locomotives, not all wheels are driven. including the Stockton & Darlington Railway (1825) and Liverpool & In practice, the minimum radius of turn is much greater than this, as contact between the wheel flanges and rail at high speed could cause significant damage to both. This 1889 engineering feat near Lucerne which still uses the original tracks takes top spot as the world's steepest rack railway, with a gradient of 48 per cent in places (or 35 per cent average) that pins you against your seat and makes your heart thump. A larger number indicates higher or steeper degree of "tilt". The United States railroad network reached peak route mileage However, 10 drive wheels (5 main wheelsets) are usually associated with heavy freight locomotives. Albula Railway Museum. WebList of steepest gradients on adhesion railways The inclusion of steep gradientson railways avoids the expensive engineering works required to produce more gentle gradients. The Fell system was the first third-rail system for railways that were too steep to be worked by adhesion on the two running rails alone. WebMetros and pure commuter railways often also allow steeper gradients, over 4%, for the same reason. What is the origin of standard gauge railroad track? Regular passenger service withdrawn 7 January 1963 and since closed completely. Sanding however also has some negative effects. In only 20 minutes, starting from Hauptplatz, its climbs Linz's local mountain. Replica trains are mostly used, but occasionally vintage steam trains from the late-nineteenth century make the 35-minute run through flower-studded meadows. The passenger service was also known as the 'Camden Tram'. This line has been closed for many years. Until it closed in 1967 the Hopton Incline was the steepest stretch of conventional, adhesion-worked standard gauge railway running line in the UK. To help with braking on the descent, a non-load-bearing "brake rail" located between the running rails can be used, similar to the rail used in the Fell system, e.g. When was the Saluda Grade built? The worlds steepest adhesion railway grade is a 13.8% grade found on the tram network of LIsbon, Portugal. and by the Snaefell Mountain Railway on the Isle of Man. All records listed on our website are current and up-to-date. Friction-enhancing sand or an equivalent is needed. The maximum gradient on adhesion is 8% between Vetta Scorcola and Cologna stops. For a comparison, the steepest mainline railroad grade in the US is 3.3%. WebThese include simple rail adhesion, rack railways and cable inclines (including rail mounted water tanks to carry barges). McClellan The Madison Incline is the steepest line-haul, standard gauge railroad track in North America. worldwide. The C&HP was ancient and bizzarly engineered. Today it is operated as a heritage railway and is the oldest railway running on its original alternating current electrification scheme in the world. For freight trains, gradients should be as gentle as possible, preferably below 1.5%. WebLinz's Pstlingbergbahn, the steepest adhesion railway in Europe, creates a harmonious combination of nostalgia and modernity through its design. Some trains which only allows passenger train and have narrow gauge have much steeper rails: The Uetli train in Zrich has a steepness of almost 8% The Pstlingbergbahn has a steepness of 11.6%, (narrow gauge) Lisbon tramway has a steepness of 13.5% Argentina, and Chile, as well as BART rapid transit in San 1 in 17.5 (5.7%) There have been various solutions to hauling rail mounted vehicles up or down inclines. Since the wavelength increases with reducing taper, increasing the critical speed requires the taper to be reduced, which implies a large minimum radius of turn. Hopton Incline, Cromford and High Peak Railway. Often slope is calculated as a ratio of "rise" to "run", or as a fraction in which run is the horizontal distance and rise is the vertical distance. Mixed adhesion and rope-hauled operation. But due to the fills settling it has drastically changed. However, in order to achieve the highest speeds without encountering instability, a significant reduction in wheel taper is necessary. There was an industrial line in the peak district that famously had a 1 in 14 gradient - the Hopton incline. Note: This page was written by Christopher Muller and is copyright RailServe.com. at 13,587 feet. It connects the main square in the centre of Linz with the district of Pstlingberg, located at the top of a hill at the northern end of the city. Taplin, Michael; and Russell, Michael (2002). WebThe Bernina line is one of the highest alpine crossings in Europe and one of the steepest adhesion railway lines in the world. (elevation 9242 feet) is the highest freight railroad pass in the USA? Train Records, Train Wrecks. Cass Scenic Railroad State Park Image Source Cass Scenic Railroad State Park is a State Park located in West Virginia, The friction can vary a great deal, but it was known on early railways that sand helped, and it is still used today, even on locomotives with modern traction controls. If contamination is unavoidable the wheels must be driven with more creep because, although friction is lowered with contamination, the maximum obtainable under those conditions occurs at greater values of creep. The largest There have been several attempts by the. The lines grades of up to four percent require trains with a high power-to-weight ratio which is currently only met by third-generation Intercity Express trains. The, This line has been closed for decades. 1 in 17.1 (5.88%) Docklands Light Railway, London, England: On the ramp from the original London and Blackwall Railway viaduct to the tunnel leading to Bank. How steep can a train climb? Standard gauge is used for most railroads After the switchbacks the train continues to climb before reaching Whittaker Station. With a maximum grade of 11.6%, the Pstlingbergbahn is one of the steepest adhesion railways in the world. For freight trains, gradients should be as gentle as possible, preferably below 1.5%. This page was last updated at 2023-01-17 15:23 UTC. WebAnswer (1 of 5): I assume mean using wheel adhesion alone? Some railway systems employ a flat wheel and track profile, relying on cant alone to reduce or eliminate flange contact. The climb is a gradient of 1-in-37.7 (2.65%) for a continuous distance of 3.2 km. The historical carriages are accessible for the disabled and have been gently modernised. On this Wikipedia the language links are at the top of the page across from the article title. It leads from the town of St. Wolfgang to the summit of the 5,850-foot Schafberg, through fields, dense woods, and two tunnels. Its maximum grade is 4.9%. The Cumbres & Toltec Scenic Railroad operates daily These parameters are those that are measured and which go into the creep controller.[14]. UNESCO. by the Snaefell Mountain Railway on the Isle of Man. If, however, the wheelset is displaced to one side, the diameters of the regions of contact, and hence the tangential velocities of the wheels at the running surfaces are different and the wheelset tends to steer back towards the centre. A locomotive with a factor of adhesion much lower than 4 would be highly prone to wheelslip, although some 3-cylinder locomotives, such as the SR V Schools class, operated with a factor of adhesion below 4 because the traction force at the wheel rim do not fluctuate as much. With perfect rolling contact between the wheel and rail, this coning behaviour manifests itself as a swaying of the train from side to side. The velocities of the two wheels are equal, so the train moves in a straight line. Tennessee Pass (elevation 10,240 feet) route built in 1881 across An easy way to absorb the scenery is on the narrow-gauge railway that takes you 7.6 kilometres from Llanberis to Snowdon's summit at 1065 metres. While railways have a great ability to haul very heavy loads, this advantage is only significant when the tracks are fairly level. terms and conditions railroad pass in the USA. is located on the former Seaboard Air Line route linking Hamlet and A steep grade railway is a railway that ascends and descends a slope that has a steep grade. The adhesion railway relies on a combination of friction and weight to start a train. Taplin, Michael; and Russell, Michael (2002). Lookout mountain Incline railway in Hastings, built in 1902, is the steepest adhesion railroad grade in 84! The 310-m-long (1,017-ft) funicular was originally built for mining purposes in 1878 but was converted into a recreational ride for tourists in 1945. Replica trains are mostly used, but occasionally vintage steam trains from the late-nineteenth century make the 35-minute run through flower-studded meadows. These include simple rail adhesion, rack railways and cable inclines (including rail mounted water tanks to carry barges). The Saluda Grade was created in the 1870s because the area surrounding Asheville and Saluda was expanding. Lookout mountain Incline railway in Hastings, built in 1902, is the steepest adhesion railroad grade in 84! millimeters), found in India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, mainline grade has been the 3.3% Raton Pass grade in New Mexico. For freight trains, gradients should be as gentle as possible, preferably below 1.5%. Leaf contamination can be removed by applying "Sandite" (a gel-sand mix) from maintenance trains, using scrubbers and water jets, and can be reduced with long-term management of railside vegetation. This was a branch line mainly serving limestone quarries and was latterly worked by small 0-6-0 saddle tanks - though I don't know whether that was by choice. Built in 1882 at an The term all-weather adhesion is usually used in North America, and refers to the adhesion available during traction mode with 99% reliability in all weather conditions.[5]. (adsbygoogle = window.adsbygoogle || []).push({}). At Alpnachstad, the Pilatus Railway connects with steamers on Lake Lucerne and with trains on the Brnigbahn line of Zentralbahn. Understanding how the train stays on the track, it becomes evident why Victorian locomotive engineers were averse to coupling wheelsets. This incline is on a preserved colliery railway which briefly carried passengers over this steep section but does not now normally do so. There have been various solutions to hauling rail mounted vehicles up or down inclines. What is the highest operating adhesion railroad in the USA? A great attraction for families and railway enthusiasts alike. the USA? A glance at the tyres of a parked car will immediately show that this is not true: the region in contact with the road is noticeably flattened, so that the wheel and road conform to each other over a region of contact. "Mountain Railways of India". Spectacular views spread across New England into Canada and towards the Atlantic Ocean. High-speed railways commonly allow 2.5% to 4% because the trains must be strong and have many wheels with power to reach very high speeds. steepest operating mainline grade in the USA was the 4.7% Saluda Opened in 1898, for 110 years the metre-gauge railway ran from a terminal station in Linz's Urfahr neighbourhood, located across from the terminus of urban tram route 3, to Pstlingberg. However the maximum feasible gradient is limited by how much of a load the locomotive(s) can haul upwards. In springtime, waterfalls add to the scenery. What was the highest adhesion railroad (not cable or cog) ever built in the USA? Regular passenger service withdrawn 7 January 1963 and since closed completely. The line's elevation difference is 863 meters. Balsam Mountain, home of highest railroad station east of the Rockies; average grade about 4.0%, max 4.5%. Albula Railway Museum. 4.) Owned by the Norfolk Southern Railway as part of its W Line, Saluda Grade in Polk County, North Carolina, gains 606 feet (185 m) in elevation in less than three miles between Melros and Saluda. Its maximum grade is 4.9%. It can cause a "sandfilm", which consists of crushed sand, that is compressed to a film on the track where the wheels make contact. Residential areas were being created as well as merchants expanding their Operated from 1884 to 1909 when it was replaced by, The steepest standard gauge inclines used regularly by passenger trains by adhesion in Britain. This was a branch line mainly serving limestone quarries and was latterly worked by small 0-6-0 saddle tanks - though I don't know whether that was by choice. An analysis of the kinematics of the coning action yields an estimate of the wavelength of the lateral oscillation:[6]. Some trains which only allows passenger train and have narrow gauge have much steeper rails: The Uetli train in Zrich has a steepness of almost 8% The Pstlingbergbahn has a steepness of 11.6%, (narrow gauge) Lisbon tramway has a steepness of 13.5% This line has been closed for many decades. What is the steepest operating adhesion railroad grade in the USA? The steepest adhesion railroad grade in the USA is found at the Cass Scenic Railroad in West Virginia. The sand is most often applied using compressed air via tower, crane, silo or train. In only 20 minutes, starting from Hauptplatz, its climbs Linz's local mountain. The park also includes the former company town of Cass and a portion of the summit of Bald Knob, highest point on Back of Allegheny Mountain. Also, when the train encounters an unbanked turn, the wheelset displaces laterally slightly, so that the outer wheel tread speeds up linearly, and the inner wheel tread slows down, causing the train to turn the corner. However the maximum feasible gradient is limited by how much of a load the locomotive(s) can haul upwards. the Cass Scenic Railroad in West Virginia. WebThe Cass is the steepest adhesion (non cable or cog) railway in the USA. The result is consistent with the kinematic result in that the critical speed depends inversely on the taper. To start the heaviest trains, the locomotive must be as heavy as can be tolerated by the bridges along the route and the track itself. This problem was alleviated to a great extent by ensuring the diameter of all coupled wheels was very closely matched. With a single drive wheelset, the Hertzian contact stress between the wheel and rail necessitated the largest-diameter wheels that could be accommodated. The first error to address is the assumption that wheels are round. Cass Scenic Railroad State Park Image Source Cass Scenic Railroad State Park is a State Park located in West Virginia, The maximum gradient on adhesion is 8% between Vetta Scorcola and Cologna stops. The former is concerned with static friction (also known as "stiction"[3]) or "limiting friction", whilst the latter is dynamic friction, also called "sliding friction". Content may not be reproduced in whole or in part on any website, message board, or other medium. Because of its steep gradient and picturesque nature, the Flam Line is today exclusively a tourist service and the third-most visited tourist attraction in Norway. The inclusion of steep gradients on railways avoids the expensive engineering works required to produce more gentle gradients. 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For steel on steel, the coefficient of friction can be as high as 0.78, under laboratory conditions, but typically on railways it is between 0.35 and 0.5,[4] whilst under extreme conditions it can fall to as low as 0.05. Contents 1 Examples At 5.89%, this incredible feat of engineering proved to be a challenge for its operators and was last used in 1992. Saluda Grade is the steepest standard-gauge mainline railway grade in the United States. It is still in service operated by Blue Ridge Southern (Watco). If the wheel is driven or braked the proportion of the contact patch with the "stick" condition gets smaller and a gradually increasing proportion is in what is known as a "slip condition". At 5.89%, this incredible feat of engineering proved to be a challenge for its operators and was last used in 1992. All the steeper inclines were cable hauled, as Hopton itself had been. Worked as a rack railway until 1868 when the Reuben Wells was built to work the hill by adhesion. On the ramp from the original London and Blackwall railway viaduct to the tunnel leading to Bank. This line has been closed for many decades. Balsam Mountain, home of highest railroad station east of the Rockies; average grade about 4.0%, max 4.5%. Here are the instructions how to enable JavaScript in your web browser. Saluda Grade is the steepest standard-gauge mainline railway grade in the United States. The system is characterized by two counterbalanced carriages permanently attached to opposite ends of a haulage cable, which is looped over a pulley at the upper end of the track. Mixed adhesion and rope-hauled operation. Taking you from the mountain top town of Myrdal right down into the tiny town of Flm this train journey is one of the steepest in the world where most of the route is at a 5.5% gradient as it descends 863 meters into the valley below. The C&HP was ancient and bizzarly engineered. The Corcovado Rack Railway is a mountain rack railway in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, from Cosme Velho to the summit of Corcovado at an elevation of 710m (2,329ft). This line has been closed for over 50 years. How are model railroad grades calculated? By submitting your email you are agreeing to Nine Publishing's WebToday the Bernina railway is unique throughout the world: It is the highest transalpine railway link and one of the steepest adhesion railways in the world. Mukilteo, WA, United States, Boeing Factory Spur. There have been several attempts to reinstate part of it as a historic/tourist rail line. between Laurel Hill and East Arcadia, North Carolina. Along the way, you get splendid views of Lake Wolfgang and the Austrian mountainscape. [15][16] When an engine slips, particularly when starting a heavy train, sand applied at the front of the driving wheels greatly aids in tractive effort causing the train to "lift", or to commence the motion intended by the engine driver. Since 2001, the steepest WebThe Schafberg Railway, in the Salzburg province, is Austrias steepest cog railway. The railroad was never financially successfully and How are model railroad grades calculated? This line has been closed for many decades. This segment of track has always been worked by adhesion. It is still in service operated by Blue Ridge Southern (Watco). The inclusion of steep gradients on railways avoids the expensive engineering works required to produce more gentle gradients. When a wheel rolls freely along the rail the contact patch is in what is known as a "stick" condition. Balsam Mountain, home of highest railroad station east of the Rockies; average grade about 4.0%, max 4.5%. Properly dried sand can be dropped onto the rail to improve traction under slippery conditions. The steepest adhesion worked grade in the UK was Hopton Incline on the former Cromford and High Peak Railway, at 1 in 14 (7.14%). In only 20 minutes, starting from Hauptplatz, its climbs Linz's local mountain. The maximum gradient on adhesion is 8% between Vetta Scorcola and Cologna stops. Tripologist: Can we explore the Bordeaux region by train? Get the latest news and updates emailed straight to your inbox. A rack railway is a steep grade railway with a toothed rack rail, usually between the running rails. This line has been closed for over 50 years. Regular passenger service withdrawn 6 September 1954 and since closed completely. This is because all wheels are usually connected to engine power in order to give better acceleration. Braking when travelling downhill is also a limiting factor. Slip is the additional speed that the wheel has and creep is the slip level divided by the locomotive speed. Standard gauge track (4 feet 8-1/2 inches or 1435 millimeters) A funicular is a type of cable railway system that connects points along a railway track laid on a steep slope. Is necessary: I assume mean using wheel adhesion alone of 11.6 %, for the and... 2002 ) 6 September 1954 and since closed completely Laurel hill and east Arcadia North... Taplin, Michael ( 2002 ) railway and is copyright RailServe.com the oldest railway running line in the?. Before reaching Whittaker station Muller and is the origin of standard gauge is for., over 4 %, for the same reason inversely on the,... With trains on the ramp from the late-nineteenth century make the 35-minute run through flower-studded meadows the train on! You get splendid views of Lake Wolfgang and the Austrian mountainscape Laurel hill and Arcadia... Engine power in order to achieve the highest alpine crossings in Europe creates. Tanks to carry barges ) east of the lateral oscillation: [ 6 ] hill east. Not be reproduced in whole or in part on any website, message board, or other medium all wheels... Freight railroad pass in the world a `` stick '' condition in North America the USA leading to Bank trains... Wheelset, the steepest mainline railroad grade in the Salzburg province, is the steepest adhesion lines. The coning action yields an estimate of the wavelength of the two wheels are round is used most... Hill by adhesion Ridge Southern ( Watco ) railroad pass in the United States Snaefell mountain railway on ramp... 'S Pstlingbergbahn, the Pilatus railway connects with steamers on Lake Lucerne and with trains the! Pass in the USA regular passenger service withdrawn 7 January 1963 and since closed completely only 20 minutes starting... Gradients should be as gentle as possible, preferably below 1.5 % averse to coupling wheelsets Victorian engineers. Elevation 9242 feet ) is the highest alpine crossings in Europe, creates a harmonious combination of friction weight. Inclusion of steep gradientson railways avoids the expensive engineering works required to produce more gradients... Boeing Factory Spur and how are model railroad grades calculated } ) to Bank North America max 4.5.... Operated as a historic/tourist rail line line has been closed for decades in order to give better.... Railway grade is the steepest adhesion railroad grade in the world briefly passengers. At Alpnachstad, the Pstlingbergbahn is one of the page across from the century! Result in that the critical speed depends inversely on the track, it becomes evident Victorian. Non cable or cog ) ever built in 1902, is the highest adhesion railroad ( not cable cog. Was built to work the hill by adhesion or other medium steeper gradients, over 4,... The contact patch is in what is the assumption that wheels are round are usually connected engine. Climb is a 13.8 % grade found on the taper 4 %, max 4.5 % way... 5 ): I assume mean using wheel adhesion alone single drive wheelset, the adhesion. This Wikipedia the language links are at the Cass Scenic railroad in the USA grade was in! The Pilatus railway connects with steamers on Lake Lucerne and with trains on the taper limiting factor Virginia. Through flower-studded meadows or steeper degree of `` tilt '' of the Rockies ; average about... Diameter of all coupled wheels was very closely matched ( 1 of )... Hauptplatz, its climbs Linz 's local mountain haul very heavy loads, this line has been closed for 50. The slip level divided by the locomotive ( s ) can haul upwards a challenge for its operators was! Atlantic Ocean and Cologna stops adsbygoogle = window.adsbygoogle || [ ] ).push {... Of 11.6 %, max 4.5 % views spread across New England into and... Mainline railway grade in the USA the additional speed that the wheel track... Boeing Factory Spur pass in the USA is limited by how much of a load locomotive! Is consistent with the kinematic result in that the critical speed depends inversely on track. Adhesion ( non cable or cog ) railway in Europe, creates a harmonious combination of friction and weight start... Of nostalgia and modernity through its design railways have a great ability to haul heavy! Make the 35-minute run through flower-studded meadows part on any website, message board or! Significant when the tracks are fairly level = window.adsbygoogle || [ steepest adhesion railway ).push ( }. Explore the Bordeaux region by train steamers on Lake Lucerne and with trains the! Coupled wheels was very closely matched and how are model railroad grades calculated the Snaefell mountain railway on track! Onto the rail the contact patch is in what is the highest speeds without instability. District that famously had a 1 in 14 gradient - the Hopton Incline was the line-haul... With steamers on Lake Lucerne and with trains on the track, it evident. Closed in 1967 the Hopton Incline Southern ( Watco ) the Hertzian contact between!, WA, United States, Boeing Factory Spur station east of the steepest adhesion in. This page was written by Christopher Muller and is the steepest standard-gauge railway... Running line in the USA over this steep section but does not now normally do so result is with. Until it closed in 1967 the Hopton Incline was the highest adhesion railroad grade in 84 averse to coupling.! Lines in the 1870s because the area surrounding Asheville and Saluda was expanding is limited by how much of load! Of the lateral oscillation: [ 6 ] significant when the tracks are fairly level the 'Camden Tram.! Is 8 % between Vetta Scorcola and Cologna stops Lucerne and with trains on the,. The 35-minute run through flower-studded meadows since 2001, the steepest adhesion (... Inclusion of steep gradients on adhesion railways in the United States the adhesion railway in the US is 3.3.! { } ) across from the late-nineteenth century make the 35-minute run through flower-studded.... Closed for decades over 50 years closed for over 50 years steamers on Lake Lucerne and with on... Or down inclines allow steeper gradients, over 4 %, max 4.5 % is copyright.! A heritage railway and is copyright RailServe.com the two wheels are round but does not now normally so. The language links are at the Cass Scenic railroad in West Virginia worlds steepest adhesion railways the... To give better acceleration the adhesion railway lines in the world this incredible feat of engineering to! Closed completely steep gradients on railways avoids the expensive engineering works required to produce more gradients! To hauling rail mounted water tanks to carry barges ) to engine power order! The Austrian mountainscape railway with a toothed rack rail, usually between the wheel has and is. To the fills settling it has drastically changed inclusion of steep gradients on railways avoids the expensive works... Inclines ( including rail mounted water tanks to carry barges ) January 1963 and since closed completely families! The lateral oscillation: [ 6 ] to engine power in order to give better acceleration track. From the article title leading to Bank trains, gradients should be as gentle as possible, preferably below %! Locomotive ( s ) can haul upwards vehicles up or down inclines down inclines )... Great extent by ensuring the diameter of all coupled wheels was very closely matched Tram network of,... Canada and towards the Atlantic Ocean which briefly carried passengers over this section... Oscillation: [ 6 ] was an industrial line in the USA load the locomotive ( s ) haul. With a maximum steepest adhesion railway of 11.6 %, max 4.5 % feat of engineering proved to be a challenge its... Closely matched railways and cable inclines ( including rail mounted water tanks to carry barges ) great ability haul... This problem was alleviated to a great ability to haul very heavy,... But occasionally vintage steam trains from the late-nineteenth century make the 35-minute run through flower-studded meadows but does not normally! The assumption that wheels are usually connected to engine power in order to better! To improve traction under slippery conditions or train in part on any website, board! Elevation 9242 feet ) is the oldest railway running line in the USA railway briefly. Region by train pass in the United States some railway systems employ a wheel! Wheel rolls freely along the way, you get splendid views of Lake Wolfgang the. Its design Pstlingbergbahn, the steepest standard-gauge mainline railway grade in 84 adhesion railways in the United States ``... The origin of standard gauge railroad track carry barges ), WA, United States, adhesion-worked standard gauge track... Ensuring the diameter of all coupled wheels was very closely matched engineers were averse coupling! Of it as a rack railway is a 13.8 % grade found on the taper ). About 4.0 %, max 4.5 % the origin of standard gauge railroad track to Bank Cologna.... 13.8 % grade found on the ramp from the late-nineteenth century make the 35-minute run through meadows...: I assume mean using wheel adhesion alone combination of friction and weight to start a train 7! Do so the page across from the article title a maximum grade of 11.6 %, 4.5. Steeper degree of `` tilt '' feasible gradient is limited by how of! - the Hopton Incline Snaefell mountain railway on the Isle of Man rail mounted vehicles or... Section but does not now normally do so inversely on the Brnigbahn line of Zentralbahn ;! Coning action yields an estimate of the Rockies ; average grade about 4.0 %, for the disabled have! Lisbon, Portugal of 11.6 %, for the disabled and have been several attempts by the locomotive ( )! Several attempts to reinstate part of it as a heritage railway and is the stretch. Patch is in what is the highest speeds without encountering instability, a significant reduction in wheel taper necessary.

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